2.1 Context

Most software-driven systems we commonly use in our daily life are huge hierarchical assemblings of components. This observation runs from the micro-scale (multi-core chips) to the macro-scale (data centers), and from hardware systems (telecommunication networks) to software systems (choreographies of web services). The main characteristics of these pervasive applications are size, complexity, heterogeneity, and modularity (or concurrency). Besides, several such systems are actively used before they are fully mastered, or they have grown so much that they now raise new problems that are hardly manageable by human operators. While these systems and applications are becoming more essential, or even critical, the need for their reliability, efficiency and manageability becomes a central concern in computer science. The main objective of SUMO is to develop theoretical tools to address such challenges, according to the following axes.

2.2 Necessity of quantitative models

Several disciplines in computer science have of course addressed some of the issues raised by large systems. For example, formal methods (essentially for verification purposes), discrete-event systems (diagnosis, control, planning, and their distributed versions), but also concurrency theory (modelling and analysis of large concurrent systems). Practical needs have oriented these methods towards the introduction of quantitative aspects, such as time, probabilities, costs, and their combinations. This approach drastically changes the nature of questions that are raised. For example, verification questions become the reachability of a state in a limited time, the average sojourn duration in a state, the probability that a run of the system satisfies some property, the existence of control strategies with a given winning probability, etc. In this setting, exact computations are not always appropriate as they may end up with unaffordable complexities, or even with undecidability. Approximation strategies then offer a promising way around, and are certainly also a key to handling large systems. Approaches based on discrete-event systems follow the same trend towards quantitative models. For diagnosis aspects, one is interested in the most likely explanations to observed malfunctions, in the identification of the most informative tests to perform, or in the optimal placement of sensors. For control problems, one is of course interested in optimal control, in minimizing communications, in the robustness of the proposed controllers, in the online optimization of QoS (Quality of Service) indicators, etc.

2.3 Specificities of distributed systems

While the above questions have already received partial answers, they remain largely unexplored in a distributed setting. We focus on structured systems, typically a network of dynamic systems with known interaction topology, the latter being either static or dynamic. Interactions can be synchronous or asynchronous. The state-space explosion raised by such systems has been addressed through two techniques. The first one consists in adopting true-concurrency models, which take advantage of the parallelism to reduce the size of the trajectory sets. The second one looks for modular or distributed "supervision" methods, taking the shape of a network of local supervisors, one per component. While these approaches are relatively well understood, their mixing with quantitative models remains a challenge (as an example, there exists no proper setting assembling concurrency theory with stochastic systems). This field is largely open both for modeling, analysis and verification purposes, and for distributed supervision techniques. The difficulties combine with the emergence of data-driven distributed systems (as web services or data centric systems), where the data exchanged by the various components influence both the behaviors of these components and the quantitative aspects of their reactions (e.g. QoS). Such systems call for symbolic or parametric approaches for which a theory is still missing.

2.4 New issues raised by large systems

Some existing distributed systems like telecommunication networks, data centers, or large-scale web applications have reached sizes and complexities that reveal new management problems. One can no longer assume that the model of the managed systems is static and fully known at any time and any scale. To scale up the management methods to such applications, one needs to be able to design reliable abstractions of parts of the systems, or to dynamically build a part of their model, following the needs of the management functions to realize. Besides, one does not wish to define management objectives at the scale of each single component, but rather to pilot these systems through high-level policies (maximizing throughput, minimizing energy consumption, etc). These distributed systems and management problems have connections with other approaches for the management of large structured stochastic systems, such as Bayesian networks (BN) and their variants. The similarity can actually be made more formal: inference techniques for BN rely on the concept of conditional independence, which has a counterpart for networks of dynamic systems and is at the core of techniques like distributed diagnosis, distributed optimal planning, or the synthesis of distributed controllers. The potential of this connection is largely unexplored, but it suggests that one could derive from it good approximate management methods for large distributed dynamic systems.

3.1 Introduction

Since its creation in 2015, SUMO has successfully developed formal methods for large quantitative systems, in particular addressing verification, synthesis and control problems. Our current motivation is to expand this by putting emphasis on new concerns, such as algorithm efficiency, imprecision handling, and the more challenging objective of addressing incomplete or missing models. In the following we list a selection of detailed research goals, structured into four axes according to model classes: quantitative models, large systems, population models, and data-driven models. Some correspond to the pursuit of previously obtained results, others are more prospective.

3.2 Axis 1: Quantitative models

The analysis and control of quantitative models will remain at the heart of a large part of our research activities. In particular, we have two starting collaborative projects focusing on timed models, namely our ANR project TickTac and our collaboration with MERCE. The main expected outcome of TickTac is an open-source tool implementing the latest algorithms and allowing for quick prototyping of new algorithms. Several other topics will be explored in these collaborations, including robustness issues, game-theoretic problems, as well as the development of efficient algorithms, e.g. based on CEGAR approach or specifically designed for subclasses of automata (e.g. automata with few clocks and/or having a specific structure, as in  33). Inspired by our collaboration with Alstom, we also aim at developing symbolic techniques for analysing non-linear timed models.

Stochastic models are another important focus for our research. On the one hand, we want to pursue our work on the optimization of non-standard properties for Markov decision processes, beyond the traditional verification questions, and explore e.g. long-run probabilities, and quantiles. Also, we aim at lifting our work on decisiveness from purely stochastic  31, 32 to non-deterministic and stochastic models in order to provide approximation schemes for the probability of (repeated) reachability properties in infinite-state Markov decision processes. On the other hand, in order to effectively handle large stochastic systems, we will pursue our work on approximation techniques. We aim at deriving simpler models, enjoying or preserving specific properties, and at determining the appropriate level of abstraction for a given system. One needs of course to quantify the approximation degrees (distances), and to preserve essential features of the original systems (explainability). This is a connection point between formal methods and the booming learning methods.

Regarding diagnosis/opacity issues, we will explore further the quantitative aspects. For diagnosis, the theory needs extensions to the case of incomplete or erroneous models, and to reconfigurable systems, in order to develop its applicability (see Sec. 3.6). There is also a need for non-binary causality analysis (e.g. performance degradations in complex systems). For opacity, we aim at quantifying the effort attackers must produce vs how much of a secret they can guess. We also plan to synthesize robust controllers resisting to sensor failures/attacks.

3.3 Axis 2: Large systems

Part of the background of SUMO is on the analysis and management of concurrent and modular/distributed systems, which we view as two main approaches to address state explosion problems. We will pursue the study of these models (including their quantitative features): verification of timed concurrent systems, robust distributed control of modular systems, resilient control to coalitions of attackers, distributed diagnosis, modular opacity analysis, distributed optimal planning, etc. Nevertheless, we have identified two new lines of effort, inspired by our application domains.

Reconfigurable systems. This is mostly motivated by applications at the convergence of virtualization techs with networking (Orange and Nokia PhDs). Software defined networks, either in the core (Network Function Virtualization, SDN/NFV) or at the edge (Internet of Things, IoT) involve distributed systems that change structure constantly, to adapt to traffic, failures, maintenance, upgrades, etc. Traditional verification, control, diagnosis approaches (to mention only those) assume static and known models that can be handled as a whole. This is clearly insufficient here: one needs to adapt existing results to models that (sometimes automatically) change structure, incorporate new components/users or lose some, etc. At the same time, the programming paradigms for such systems (chaos monkey) incorporate resilience mechanisms, that should be considered by our models.

Hierarchical systems. Our experience with the regulation of subway lines (Alstom) revealed that large scale complex systems are usually described at a single level of granularity. Determining the appropriate granularity is a problem in itself. The control of such systems, with humans in the loop, can not be expressed at this single level, as tasks become too complex and require extremely skilled staff. It is rather desirable to describe models simultaneously at different levels of granularity, and to perform control at the appropriate level: humans in charge of managing the system by high level objectives, and computers in charge of implementing the appropriate micro-control sequences to achieve these tasks.

3.4 Axis 3: Population models

We want to step up our effort in parameterized verification of systems consisting of many identical components, so-called population models. In a nutshell our objectives summarize as "from Boolean to quantitative".

Inspired by our experience on the analysis of populations of yeasts, we aim at developping the quantitative analysis and control of population models, e.g. using Markov decision processes together with quantitative properties, and focusing on generating strategies with fast convergence.

As for broadcast networks, the challenge is to model the mobility of nodes (representing mobile ad hoc networks) in a faithful way. The obtained model should reflect on the one hand, the placement of nodes at a given time instant, and on the other hand, the physical movement of nodes over time. In this context, we will also use game theory techniques which allows one to study cooperative and conflictual behaviors of the nodes in the network, and to synthesize correct-by-design systems in adversarial environments.

As a new application area, we target randomized distributed algorithms. Our goal is to provide probabilistic variants of threshold automata  34 to represent fault-tolerant randomized distributed algorithms, designed for instance to solve the consensus problem. Most importantly, we then aim at developing new parameterized verification techniques, that will enable the automated verification of the correctness of such algorithms, as well as the assessment of their performances (in particular the expected time to termination).

In this axis, we will investigate whether fluid model checking and mean-field approximation techniques apply to our problems. More generally, we aim at a fruitful cross-fertilizing of these approaches with parameterized model-checking algorithms.

3.5 Axis 4: Data-driven models

In this axis, we will consider data-centric models, and in particular their application to crowd-sourcing. Many data-centric models such as Business Artifacts  35 orchestrate simple calls and answers to tasks performed by a single user. In a crowd-sourcing context, tasks are realized by pools of users, which may result in imprecise, uncertain and (partially) incompatible information. We thus need mechanisms to reconcile and fuse the various contributions in order to produce reliable information. Another aspect to consider concerns answers of higher-order: how to allow users to return intentional answers, under the form of a sub-workflow (coordinated set of tasks) which execution will provide the intended value. In the framework of the ANR Headwork we will build on formalisms such as GAG (guarded attribute grammars) or variants of business artifacts to propose formalisms adapted to crowd-sourcing applications, and tools to analyze them. To address imprecision, we will study techniques to handle fuzziness in user answers, will explore means to set incentives (rewards) dynamically, and to set competence requirements to guide the execution of a complex workflow, in order to achieve an objective with a desired level of quality.

In collaboration with Open Agora, CESPA and University of Yaoundé (Cameroun) we intend to implement in the GAG formalism some elements of argumentation theory (argumentation schemes, speech acts and dialogic games) in order to build a tool for the conduct of a critical discussion and the collaborative construction of expertise. The tool would incorporate point of view extraction (using clustering mechanisms), amendment management and consensus building mechanisms.

3.6 Transversal concern: missing models

We are concerned with one important lesson derived from our involvement in several application domains. Most of our background gets in force as soon as a perfect model of the system under study is available. Then verification, control, diagnosis, test, etc. can mobilize a solid background, or suggest new algorithmic problems to address. In numerous situations, however, assuming that a model is available is simply unrealistic. This is a major bottleneck for the impact of our research. We therefore intend to address this difficulty, in particular for the following domains.

• Model building for diagnosis. As a matter of fact, diagnosis theory hardly touches the ground to the extent that complete models of normal behavior are rarely available, and the identification of the appropriate abstraction level is unclear. Knowledge of faults and their effects is even less accessible. Also, the actual implemented systems may differ significantly from behaviors described in the norms. One therefore needs a theory for incomplete and erroneous models. Besides, one is often less bothered by partial observations than drowned by avalanches of alerts when malfunctions occur. Learning may come to the rescue, all the more that software systems may be deployed in sandpits and damaged for experimentation, thus allowing the collection of masses of labeled data. Competition on that theme clearly comes from Machine Learning techniques.
• Verification of large scale software. For some verification problems like the one we address in the IPL HAC-Specis, one does not have access to a formal model of the distributed program under study, but only to executions in a simulator. Formal verification poses new problems due to the difficulties to capture global states, to master state space explosion by gathering and exploiting concurrency information.
• Learning of stochastic models. Applications in bioinformatics often lead to large scale models, involving numerous chains of interactions between chemical species and/or cells. Fine grain models can be very precise, but very inefficient for inference or verification. Defining the appropriate levels of description/abstraction, given the available data and the verification goals, remains an open problem. This cannot be considered as a simple data fitting problem, as elements of biological knowledge must be combined with the data in order to preserve explainability of the phenomena.
• Testing and learning timed models: during conformance testing of a black-box implementation against its formal specification, one wants to detect non-conformances but may also want to learn the implementation model. Even though mixing testing and learning is not new, this is more recent and challenging for continuous-time models.
• Process mining. We intend to extend our work on process discovery using Petri net synthesis  30 by using negative information (e.g. execution traces identified as outliers) and quantitative information (probabilistic or fuzzy sets of execution traces) in order to infer more robust and precise models.

4.1 Smart transportation systems

The smart-city trend aims at optimizing all functions of future cities with the help of digital technologies. We focus on the segment of urban trains, which will evolve from static and scheduled offers to reactive and eventually on-demand transportation offers. We address two challenges in this field. The first one concerns the optimal design of robust subway lines. The idea is to be able to evaluate, at design time, the performance of time tables and of different regulation policies. In particular, we focus on robustness issues: how can small perturbations and incidents be accommodated by the system, how fast will return to normality occur, when does the system become unstable? The second challenge concerns the design of new robust regulation strategies to optimize delays, recovery times, and energy consumption at the scale of a full subway line. These problems involve large-scale discrete-event systems, with temporal and stochastic features, and translate into robustness assessment, stability analysis and joint numerical/combinatorial optimization problems on the trajectories of these systems.

4.2 Management of telecommunication networks and of data centers

Telecommunication-network management is a rich provider of research topics for the team, and some members of SUMO have a long background of contacts and transfer with industry in this domain. Networks are typical examples of large distributed dynamic systems, and their management raises numerous problems ranging from diagnosis (or root-cause analysis), to optimization, reconfiguration, provisioning, planning, verification, etc. They also bring new challenges to the community, for example on the modeling side: building or learning a network model is a complex task, specifically because these models should reflect features like the layering, the multi-resolution view of components, the description of both functions, protocols and configuration, and they should also reflect dynamically-changing architectures. Besides modeling, management algorithms are also challenged by features like the size of systems, the need to work on abstractions, on partial models, on open systems, etc. The networking technology is now evolving toward software-defined networks, virtualized-network functions, multi-tenant systems, etc., which reinforces the need for more automation in the management of such systems.

Data centers are another example of large-scale modular dynamic and reconfigurable systems: they are composed of thousands of servers, on which virtual machines are activated, migrated, resized, etc. Their management covers issues like troubleshooting, reconfiguration, optimal control, in a setting where failures are frequent and mitigated by the performance of the management plane. We have a solid background in the coordination of the various autonomic managers that supervise the different functions/layers of such systems (hardware, middleware, web services, ...) Virtualization technologies now reach the domain of networking, and telecommunication operators/vendors evolve towards providers of distributed open clouds. This convergence of IT and networking strongly calls for new management paradigms, which is an opportunity for the team.

4.3 Collaborative workflows

A current trend is to involve end-users in collection and analysis of data. Exemples of this trend are contributive science, crisis-management systems, and crowd-sourcing applications. All these applications are data-centric and user-driven. They are often distributed and involve complex, and sometimes dynamic workflows. In many cases, there are strong interactions between data and control flows: indeed, decisons taken regarding the next tasks to be launched highly depend on collected data. For instance, in an epidemic-surveillance system, the aggregation of various reported disease cases may trigger alerts. Another example is crowd-sourcing applications where user skills are used to complete tasks that are better performed by humans than computers. In return, this requires addressing imprecise and sometimes unreliable answers. We address several issues related to complex workflows and data. We study declarative and dynamic models that can handle workflows, data, uncertainty, and competence management.

Once these models are mature enough, we plan to build prototypes to experiment them on real use cases from contributive science, health-management systems, and crowd-sourcing applications. We also plan to define abstraction schemes allowing formal reasonning on these systems.

5.1 Footprint of research activities

The Sumo team participated to the Extended Stay Support Scheme (ESSS) set up by TCS4F (Theoretical Computer Science for Future) during the international events ICALP and Highlights that took place in Paris in summer 2022. The ESSS aimed at exploiting the presence distant researchers (from Asia, America, etc) at these conferences to invite them over for a longer stay in France or Europe. More generally, some members of the team individually take part to the TCS4F initiatives.

Since covid, the carbon footprint of travels related to our research activities decreased a lot. Some members of the team no longer fly to attend conferences, and carefully choose the conferences where they submit not only in terms of reputation, but also taking into account the location or the possibility to attend online.

6.1 Retirement of Éric Badouel

Éric Badouel is internationally renowned for his contributions on concurrency models. He wrote a reference book on Petri nets synthesis, co-authored with his close colleagues Luca Bernardinello and Philippe Darondeau. Motivated by public health issues in Africa, over the last years, he developed a new research axis, proposing declarative models for collaborative systems.

Throughout his carreer, Éric Badouel has strongly committed to cooperation with Africa. He co-supervized PhD theses, was director of the computer science department at École Nationale Supérieure Polytechnique de Yaoundé from 1999 to 2003, and was involved in the following events and institutions: CARI (Colloque Africain sur la Recherche en Informatique), ARIMA (Revue Africaine de Recherche en Informatique et Mathématiques Appliquées) and LIRIMA (Laboratoire International de Recherche en Informatique et Mathématiques Appliquées) as a co-director. Within Inria, he was responsible of the Africa and Middle-East area at DRI.

After these great achievements, the whole Sumo team wishes Éric Badouel to enjoy his retirement!

6.2 Awards

• Nicolas Markey received the LICS test-of-time award for his paper "Temporal logic with forgettable past", co-authored by François Laroussinie (IRIF, Paris) and Philippe Schnoebelen (LMF, Paris-Saclay). This paper is one of the most influential papers among those that appeared at LICS twenty years ago.
• Loïc Hélouët received the best paper award at the international conference Petri Nets for his paper 21.

7.1 New software

8.1 New results on Axis 1: Quantitative models

8.2 New results on Axis 2: Large Systems Models

8.3 New results on Axis 3: Population Models

9.1 Bilateral contracts with industry

10.1 International initiatives

10.2 National initiatives

• ANR TickTac: Efficient Techniques for Verification and Synthesis of Real-Time Systems (2019-2023)

  Participants: Emily Clement, Aline Goeminne, Thierry Jéron, Nicolas Markey, Ocan Sankur.

  • link to web site
  • Led by Ocan Sankur (SUMO);
  • Partners: LMF (Paris-Saclay), ISIR (Paris), LaBRI (Bordeaux), LRDE (Paris), LIF (Marseille)

  The aim of TickTac is to develop novel algorithms for the verification and synthesis of real-time systems using the timed automata formalism. One of the project's objectives is to develop an open-source and configurable model checker which will allow the community to compare algorithms. The algorithms and the tool will be used on a motion planning case study for robotics.

• ANR HeadWork: Human-Centric Data-oriented WORKflows (2016-2022)

  Participants: Éric Badouel, Loïc Hélouët.

  • link to website
  • Led by David Gross-Amblard (Université Rennes 1);
  • Partners: IRISA team Druid (Rennes), Inria Project-Teams Valda (Paris), SUMO (Rennes) and Links (Lille), MNHN, Foule Factory.

  The objective of this project is to develop techniques to facilite development, deployment, and monitoring of crowd-based participative applications. This requires handling complex workflows with multiple participants, incertainty in data collections, incentives, skills of contributors, ... To overcome these challenges, Headwork will define rich workflows with multiple participants, data and knowledge models to capture various kind of crowd applications with complex data acquisition tasks and human specificities. We will also address methods for deploying, verifying, optimizing, but also monitoring and adapting crowd-based workflow executions at run time.

• ANR MAVeriQ: Methods of Analysis for Verification of Quantitative properties (2021-2025)

  Participants: Nathalie Bertrand, Éric Fabre, Blaise Genest, Loïc Hélouët, Nicolas Markey.

  • link to website
  • Led by Aldric Degorre (IRIF); Local coordinator Éric Fabre.
  • Partners: IRIF, LMF, Inria Rennes/IRISA, LACL, Verimag.

  The objective of this project is to develop unified frameworks for quantitative verification of timed, hybrid, and stochastic systems. We believe such a unification is possible because common patterns are used in many cases. The project targets in particular:

  • systematization of quantitative properties and their use cases
  • substantial progress in the algorithms of quantitative verification;
  • practical methodology for stating and verifying quantitative properties of systems.

  The aim of MAVeriQ is to progress towards this unification, by gathering skills on timed and stochastic systems and on quantitative verification under a common roof, to jointly address open challenges in quantitative model-checking and quantitative validation. One such challenge we will address is robustness of quantitative models, that is, resilience to small perturbations, which is crucial for implementability. Unified methods developed in the project (such as robustness analysis and simulation techniques) will be showcased in different case studies in the domain of CPS (in particular automotive control),showing that such a system can be verified in different ways without leaving this framework.

11.1 Promoting scientific activities

11.2 Teaching - Supervision - Juries

11.3 Popularization

12.1 Major publications

• 1 bookE.Eric Badouel, L.Luca Bernardinello and P.Philippe Darondeau. Petri Net Synthesis.Text in Theoretical Computer Science, an EATCS SeriesSpringerNovember 2015, 339
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• 2 inproceedingsC.Christel Baier, N.Nathalie Bertrand, C.Clemens Dubslaff, D.Daniel Gburek and O.Ocan Sankur. Stochastic Shortest Paths and Weight-Bounded Properties in Markov Decision Processes.LICS '18 - 33rd Annual ACM/IEEE Symposium on Logic in Computer ScienceOxford, United KingdomACM PressJuly 2018, 86-94
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• 3 inproceedingsH.Hugo Bazille, B.Blaise Genest, C.Cyrille Jegourel and J.Jun Sun. Global PAC Bounds for Learning Discrete Time Markov Chains.CAV 2020LNCSCAV 202012225Los Angeles, United States2020, 304-326
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• 4 articleN.Nathalie Bertrand, M.Miheer Dewaskar, B.Blaise Genest, H.Hugo Gimbert and A.Adwait Godbole. Controlling a population.Logical Methods in Computer Science1532019, 1-30
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• 5 incollectionP.Patricia Bouyer, U.Uli Fahrenberg, K. G.Kim G. Larsen, N.Nicolas Markey, J.Joël Ouaknine and J.James Worrell. Model Checking Real-Time Systems.Handbook of model checkingSpringer-VerlagApril 2018, 1001-1046
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• 6 inproceedingsE.Eric Fabre, L.Loïc Hélouët, E.Engel Lefaucheux and H.Hervé Marchand. Diagnosability of Repairable Faults.13th International Workshop on Discrete Event Systems(Version Longue)Xi'an, China2016, 256-262
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• 7 inproceedingsS.Srinivas Pinisetty, Y.Yliès Falcone, T.Thierry Jéron and H.Hervé Marchand. Runtime Enforcement of Regular Timed Properties.Software Verification and Testing, track of the Symposium on Applied Computing ACM-SAC 2014Gyeongju, South KoreaACMMarch 2014, 1279-1286
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12.2 Publications of the year

12.3 Cited publications

• 29 inproceedingsS.S. Akshay, B.Blaise Genest, L.Loïc Hélouët, S. N.Shankara Narayanan Krishna and S.Sparsa Roychowdhury. Resilience of Timed Systems.41st IARCS Annual Conference on Foundations of Software Technology and Theoretical Computer Science, FSTTCS 2021, December 15-17, 2021, Virtual Conference213LIPIcsSchloss Dagstuhl - Leibniz-Zentrum für Informatik2021, 33:1--33:22URL: https://doi.org/10.4230/LIPIcs.FSTTCS.2021.33
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• 30 articleE.Eric Badouel and U.Uli Schlachter. Incremental Process Discovery using Petri Net Synthesis.Fundamenta Informaticae1541-4June 2017, 1-13
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• 31 inproceedingsN.Nathalie Bertrand, P.Patricia Bouyer, T.Thomas Brihaye and P.Pierre Carlier. Analysing Decisive Stochastic Processes.ICALP~2016~- 43rd International Colloquium on Automata, Languages, and Programming55LiPIcsRome, ItalyLZI2016, 101:1-101:14
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• 32 articleN.Nathalie Bertrand, P.Patricia Bouyer, T.Thomas Brihaye and P.Pierre Carlier. When are stochastic transition systems tameable?Journal of Logical and Algebraic Methods in Programming992018, 41-96
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• 33 articleP.Patricia Bouyer, N.Nicolas Markey, N.Nicolas Perrin and P.Philipp Schlehuber-Caissier. Timed automata abstraction of switched dynamical systems using control funnels.Real-Time Systems533May 2017, 327-353URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11241-016-9262-3
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• 34 inproceedingsI. V.Igor V. Konnov, M.Marijana Lazic, H.Helmut Veith and J.Josef Widder. A~short counterexample property for safety and liveness verification of fault-tolerant distributed algorithms.POPL~2017~- 44th ACM SIGPLAN Symposium on Principles of Programming LanguagesACM2017, 719-734
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• 35 articleA.Anil Nigam and N. S.Nathan S. Caswell. Business artifacts: An approach to operational specification.IBM Systems Journal4232003, 428-445
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